Most of the languages spoken in Pakistan have developed from the Indo-Aryan branch. All historians and linguists agree that the Aryans who entered India initially chose the Vedic language for communication. Regarding the Shina language, there is a stronger view that it belongs to the Aryans who entered the Gilgit and mountainous regions; these people are known as “Shin.” The Shina language, as one of the most important languages of the Dardic group, plays a significant role in historical linguistics, anthropology, and the study of cultural transformations in the northern Indian subcontinent. Despite its historical and linguistic importance, Shina has received less attention in the language and education policies of Pakistan compared to dominant languages such as Urdu and English.
As can be seen from the table above, the Shina language is one of the important branches of the Pisacha languages. In his book Gilgit and the Shina Language, Dr. I. S. Namus writes that the Pisacha people were not of Aryan origin; however, researchers such as Dr. Syed Mohiuddin consider Pisacha to be part of the Aryan race.
Various unusual stories are narrated about the Pisacha people and their tribes. It is said that this group consisted of very strong, hardworking, and honorable people. In an article, Raj Tarangani describes the Pisacha as cannibals; however, later research shows that such claims are merely legends. Since these people mainly consumed animal meat to withstand the cold mountainous climate and perform heavy labor, such myths became associated with them. Kashmiri folklore mentions many historical accounts about the Pisacha tribe. These stories suggest that the builders of Kashmir were the Pisacha people, and that the Kashmiri language was formed from a combination of Pisacha and local languages.
Based on historical evidence, it is clear that the Pisacha language, or Shina, is related to the Kashmiri language. Mir Ghulam Ahmad Kashfi writes in his article that it is completely true that Kashmir includes areas such as Astor, Baltistan, Ladakh, Gilgit, Darel, Chilas, and Chitral. Linguistically and culturally, these regions also show close connections with external areas such as Tibet, China, Nepal, Bhutan, and others.
In recent decades, the Shina language has been significantly influenced by Arabic. After many Shina speakers converted to Islam, words such as Allah, Qiyamat (Day of Judgment), prayer (Dowa), reward (Jaza), and punishment (Seza), ablution(vowzo), pen (Ghalam), Eid, and Takbir have entered the language. There is no doubt that Shina has also been influenced by Sanskrit; however, no systematic book or article has yet been written regarding its script.
The current form of the Shina language is still in a process of development and change. In regions such as Gilgit, Astor, Punial, Chilas, and some other areas, words from other languages are rapidly entering Shina and finding a place within it. In areas where Shina is spoken, a person unfamiliar with the language may find it difficult to understand conversations. However, in modern times, due to the widespread use of Urdu, this language has also gained some broader recognition.
The Shina Language and Its Branches:
The Shina language has the following branches:
1- Shina Khas (Special Shina)
2- Bagrote Shina
3- Nagri Shina
4- Ashkuman Shina
5- Astori Shina
6- Pololo Shina
7- Mountain Shina (Kohestani)
Shina Khas (Special Shina)
This branch is used in the Gilgit and Punial regions. It is considered very pure and contains fewer foreign words.
Bagrote Shina
This branch of Shina is common in Bagrote and Haramosh regions. Its cultural richness is very significant.
Nagri Shina
This branch belongs to the Shina speakers of Hunza and Nagarabad areas. The influence of the Burushaski language is very strong in this branch.
Ashkuman Shina
This branch is spoken in the Ashkuman and Azghur regions and has been greatly influenced by the Khowar language.
Astori Shina
This branch is common in the Astor and Ghizer regions. It has not undergone major changes; only accent and pronunciation differ.
Pololo Shina
This branch has undergone many changes and belongs to Shina speakers living in mountainous and high-altitude regions. The Balti language has had a significant influence on this branch.
Mountain Shina
This branch is spoken in areas such as Darel, Tangir, Jal Kot, and others. The Pashto language has greatly influenced it, making pronunciation more difficult.
Linguistic Features of Shina:
Phonology
The Shina language has a relatively complex phonological system and preserves some ancient phonetic distinctions. The presence of various stop and fricative consonants, as well as distinctions between short and long vowels, are among its key features.
Morphology and Syntax
Morphologically, Shina has grammatical gender (masculine and feminine) and a case system for nouns. Verbs are conjugated for tense, mood, and aspect. The basic sentence structure is typically Subject–Object–Verb (SOV).
Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Shina has ancient Indo-Aryan roots. At the same time, due to language contact, it has adopted loanwords from Persian, Urdu, and in some regions from Tibetan languages.
Script and Writing Tradition
Shina has traditionally had no standardized writing system and has mainly been transmitted orally. In modern times, efforts have been made to write it using the Persian–Arabic script, but no single standard has yet been widely accepted. This remains one of the major challenges in teaching and preserving the Shina language.
A Comparison Between Shina and Khowar:
Chitral and Gilgit can be compared to two parts of one body. Due to geographical, climatic, and natural similarities, there are very deep and enduring connections between the people of these two regions. In different historical periods, these regions had various names such as Dard Disa, Dardistan, Bolor, Boloristan, etc. In ancient times, the people of both regions spoke a single language called Pashacha. Later, due to various factors such as geographical separation, the Shina and Khowar languages emerged from Pashacha. With the change of language, many cultural traditions, artifacts, and aspects of civilization also changed, even affecting clothing styles significantly. The Khowar language has been heavily influenced by Persian (Dari) and Pashto. Unfortunately, these languages have not developed as much as expected, mainly due to the lack of transportation facilities and the difficult terrain of the regions.
However, all linguists agree that the grammar, vocabulary, and dialects of these two languages are complete enough to qualify as full languages, with no shortage in vocabulary or literary capability. Yet, due to the lack of written records showing their original form, recognizing them as fully independent written languages is somewhat difficult, as all their vocabulary and grammar have been transmitted orally.Foreign linguists from Japan, Germany, and Italy, after extensive research and spending more than a year in the region, are attempting to develop a standardized writing system that is also internationally recognized, in order to include these languages in the global linguistic community.
Another important reason for the slow development of these languages is the dominance of the Persian language in the region. After its introduction by Islamic missionaries, Persian became the official language, and people adopted it as a prestigious language. For example, during the rule of Ranjit Singh, although he himself did not know Persian, it is said that even the parrots of his court spoke Persian. When he attempted to promote Hindi in Punjab, he faced strong opposition and was forced to declare Persian the official language. Similarly, during the conquest of Kashmir, Persian was declared the official and administrative language. Later, with the arrival of the British, the conflict between Persian and English caused Shina and Khowar to be forgotten for many years. However, the people of Chitral, by mixing Persian with Khowar, were able to compose very meaningful poetry and also modify vocabulary. It should be noted that in this text, we will mention several poets from the Chitral region whose Persian poetry is considered excellent:
Among them are the following individuals: Maulana Muhammad Sir, Ataliq Muhammad Shakur Gharib, Prince Tajamal Shah Mahvi, Wazirzada Muazzam Khan, Muhammad Maga, Shah Sangeen Ali, Mirza Athar, Kohan Beg, Muhammad Afzal Beg Fasil, Mirza Ahmad Ghufran, Maulana Fazal Karim, Jin, Sufi Nizamuddin Khowari, Muhammad Raza, Abdul Haq, and Maulvi Syed Mir Shina.
In every language, letters and alphabets serve as the foundation of a structure, and a language without an alphabet is incomplete. The same issue arose with the Shina and Khowar languages. Due to the dominance of Persian and Arabic, instead of developing their own scripts, people used the Arabic and Persian alphabets, and Shina and Khowar were written using Arabic and Persian script.
The alphabet of the Shina language has very ancient and authentic roots. Those who have researched the grammar and linguistic structure of Shina letters include Dr. Leitner, Budolph Bernier, Drew, Durand Knight, Colonel Shomberg, Sir Aurel Stein, and many other linguists. These scholars documented the grammatical rules of this language and, using a special script, preserved its alphabet permanently.
Dr. Leitner, in his famous book “Dardistan Tribes and Languages,” and Dr. Budolph in “The Tribes of the Hindu Kush,” have discussed in detail the authenticity and antiquity of the Shina language. Some of the books written about the authenticity and grammar of Shina include:
1- Grammar and Vocabulary of the Khowar Language – by Oberst
2- Research on Indian Languages – by Grierson
3- Research on the North-Western Languages of India – by Morgenstierne
4- Pashacha Languages and Their Branches in North-West India – by Morgenstierne
5- Grammar of Shina Language – by Graham Bailey
6- Writing Signs of Gilgit – by Dr. Loraha
7- Dardistan – by Dr. Leitner
A very interesting point is that since the Shina language had no written script, how did poets compose poetry, and how has it survived until today? All these poets composed poetry without using pen and paper; they memorized everything and passed it down orally from generation to generation. Later, after the introduction of Persian and Arabic, these poems were written down.
It must be acknowledged that the Khowar language adapted itself more quickly to its environment and incorporated words with slight modifications in pronunciation and structure. For example, the word “motor” is pronounced the same in Shina, but in Khowar it becomes “motoro” with a slight change and is added to the vocabulary.
The development of the Khowar language reached its peak in 1917 AD, when Prince Muhammad Naser-ul-Mulk and Muhammad Ghufran jointly organized its grammar and linguistic rules. For Shina, Amir Singh made some efforts in 1894 to develop its grammar, but since he was not familiar with the language and its script, his efforts did not succeed.
In 1991, Mr. Abdul Hakim, and in 1933, Prince Muhammad Muzaffar-ul-Mulk, wrote literary books in the Khowar language and its grammatical structure, which greatly contributed to its development. These books were written in Roman script, with explanations and commentary in Persian and English.
In 1924, for the first time, the Khowar script was merged with Urdu script, gradually moving towards preservation and development. Meanwhile, Shina, instead of progressing, became influenced by Khowar. The music and instruments of the Chitral region spread into Gilgit and surrounding areas, and Shina poetry became dependent on these musical forms. As a result, its original eloquence and subtlety declined, and it became limited to words arranged mainly for musical rhythm.
The years between 1947 and 1960 are considered the golden era of development for both Shina and Khowar languages. During this period, poets from both languages attracted public attention toward linguistic development. The adoption of Khowar script with Urdu caused a revolution in the written form of the language.
Mr. Muhammad Husam-ul-Mulk was the first to translate the Holy Quran into Khowar, which added richness and timeless value to the language. After him, Maulvi Muhammad Wazir Khan wrote a book full of Khowar poems and songs and discussed its grammar and structure. With these contributions, Khowar advanced significantly and moved ahead of Shina in development and refinement.
In 1944, a weekly newspaper called “Tarjmir” was published from Peshawar, which provided detailed research and explanations about Khowar to the public. In 1947, Professor Israruddin introduced the Khowar language and region to the people of Pakistan and the world through an article in which the following topics were discussed:
1- The Chitral region and its history
2- The Khowar tribe and language
3- Political history
4- Khowar in the modern era
5- Literature and culture of Khowar
6- Khowar poets
In 1945, for the first time, special programs in the Shina language were broadcast from Radio Pakistan in Rawalpindi. In the same year, Shina also adopted the Urdu script and began to flourish. With the efforts of individuals such as Muhammad Afzal, Fazal-al -Rahman Alamgir, Ghiyath, Karim Khan, and Faqir Muhammad, numerous stories and screenplays were written in the Shina language. In 1961, a very valuable book titled “Gilgit and the Shina Language” was written by Dr. M.S. Namus.
In this book, Dr. Namus provided a detailed discussion of the Shina language from various perspectives. In the introduction, he states: “This work is the first contribution in this field.” Elsewhere, it is mentioned that this is the first book in history written on the Shina language, its grammar, dialects, and pronunciation.
In 1965, the book “Gulzar-e Malang Jan” was published. This book was written by the famous Shina poet Khalifa Rehmat Malak Jan Jan and contains poems in both Shina and Persian.
From 1970 onward, a new phase of progress in the Shina language began. During this period, several important articles were published, including:
1- Urdu, Pashto and Khowar – Inayatullah Faizi
2- Past, Present and Future of the Khowar Language – Amir Khan Amir
3- The Status of the Khowar Language – Waqar Ahmad
4- Western Linguistic Research on Khowar – Wazir Ali Shah
5- Local Languages in Chitral – Inayatullah Faizi
6- Khowar and Its Literature – Professor Israruddin
After 1970, remarkable progress also took place in the Shina language. In 1974, the Shina language was discussed in detail in Shahwar Magazine. In the same year, the poetry collection “San” by poet Amin Safa was published, which is considered the first published poetry book in the Shina language.
In 1978, with the cooperation of the Northern Areas Language Development Association, the Shina alphabet was standardized. In the same year, the second book of Amin Zia titled “Monomori” (meaning Shina proverbs) was published in Islamabad with the collaboration of Lok Virsa. The same standardized alphabet developed by the association was used in this book. In June 1982, the college of Gilgit published a magazine titled “Boloristan”, which included many articles on the Shina language. Some of them are:
1- A Look at the Culture and Civilization of Gilgit – Abdul Hamid Khawar
2- Tribes and the Shina Language – Usman Ali
3- Poetry in the Shina Language – Fazal-ur-Rahman Alamgir
4- Shina Poets in the Diamer Region – Maulvi Raji Rahmat
5- Shina Proverbs – Abdul Khaliq Taj
6- Introduction to Gilgit and Baltistan – Professor Khalid Kashmiri
During this period, two books by Ghulam-ul-Naseer Peer Taq were also published: “Jawahir Chilas” and “Zad-e Safar”. He was fully proficient in Shina, Pashto, and Persian and wrote poetry in all three languages. Most of his poetry is mystical in nature, and in Persian alone he has five poetry collections.
In 1985, Mr. Akbar Hussain’s book “Somolo Rasul”, a biography of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), was published in the Shina language. It is considered the first prose book in Shina on this topic. In the same year (1985), Munzir Ali published his research book “Karakoram and Hindukush”, which contains valuable research articles about the Shina language.
In November 1986, Amin Zia published another important book titled “Grammar and Syntax of the Shina Language”, in which for the first time the Shina alphabet and writing system were systematically analyzed. In 1988, Gohar Ali’s book “Rachali Shalo” was published. In 1989, a very important book titled “A Study of Literary Figures in Gilgit” by Sherbaz Ali Khan was published, which for the first time introduced and documented literary figures of Gilgit.
In conclusion, although the Shina language is rapidly progressing, the Khowar language has a dominant position and has surpassed Shina in many respects.
The Land of the Shina Language:
Gilgit is considered the homeland and center of the Shina language. With the decline of its traditional culture, its pronunciation has become simpler. Today, the regions where Shina is officially spoken include: Gilgit, Nagar, Hunza, Ashkuman, Punial, Astor, Darel and Tangir, Chilas, Harban, Sazin, Jal Kot, Pias, Dras Gultari, Rondu, and Ghizer.According to local statistics in 2023, the number of Shina speakers in Gilgit-Baltistan reached 500,000. If speakers in other regions are included, the total reaches approximately 1,500,000.
Religion:
In ancient times (before the emergence of Islam), Gilgit was a region of idol worship and the worship of various objects, humans, and idols. It is not possible to state precisely which religion dominated the region before Islam, as different areas worshipped different things.
With the arrival of the Aryans, their religious beliefs also entered the region, and the local people adopted them. The Aryans worshipped “Surya” (the sun), “Chandra” (the moon), “Agni” (fire), and “Ish” (clouds). Around 500 BC, Gilgit experienced a major religious transformation with the spread of Buddhism. Its center at that time was Balkh, and Buddhist teachings spread through missionaries as well as military force.
Fire worship also had a significant influence on the customs and traditions of the people, and its traces can still be seen today.
Dr. M.S. Namus writes that before the arrival of the Aryans, a Turanian people lived in this region who spoke a distinct language that has now become extinct and no information about it remains. The Aryans, believed to be of Shina descent, defeated them and settled in this fertile land. The pre-Aryan inhabitants had a special interest in horses. Making saddles, horseshoes, and other riding equipment was their main occupation, and many horse-racing competitions were held in the region. Rock carvings of horse races also support this claim.
The Shina Alphabet:
The alphabet of the Shina language is derived from multiple languages:
29 letters from Arabic (from “b” to “y”)
4 letters from Persian: p, ch, g, zh
4 letters from Hindi: t, d, r, y
11 modified letters with “h” from Hindi (e.g., bhe, phe, che, dhe, rhe, khe, ghe, etc.)
8 specially invented letters
Thus, the Shina alphabet consists of 56 letters.
Current Situation and Challenges:
Today, the Shina language faces threats such as reduced intergenerational transmission, dominance of Urdu and English in education and media, and urban migration. However, studies show that local movements and academic research in documenting oral literature and developing Shina grammar are gradually expanding.
Scientific Sources and References on the Shina Language:
Classical books and sources
Bailey, T. G. (1924). Grammar of the Shina Language. London: The Royal Asiatic Society
— یکی از نخستین گرامرهای تدوینشده درباره زبان شینا که پایههای ساختاری این زبان را بررسی میکند.
LUAWMS Journals
Radloff, C. F. & Backstrom, P. C. (1992). Languages of Northern Areas (vol. 2). Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies & SIL
— مروری بر زبانهای شمال پاکستان از جمله شینا، با دادههای اولیه و گفتاری.
LUAWMS Journals
Radloff, C. F. (1999). Aspects of the Sound System of Gilgiti Shina. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies & SIL
— مطالعه واجشناسی (Phonology) گیلگیتی شینا
LUAWMS Journals
Tāj, ‘Abdulk̲h̲āliq (1999). Shīnā Zabān o Adab. Islamabad: Academy of Pakistan Literature
— کتابی درباره زبان و ادب شینا به زبان اردو، شامل واژگان و متون محلی
CiNii
مقالات علمی پژوهشی
Anwar, Z. ul H., Shams, S. A., & Khan, U. (2022). Suffixation in the Inflectional Morphemes of Shina Language. Balochistan Journal of Linguistics, 10
— بررسی مورفولوژی و پسوندها در شینا با دادههای میدانی
LUAWMS Journals
Hussain, A., Nawaz, M., & Ali, S. (2025). Language Shift Phenomenon: A Case Study of Shina Language. Linguistics and Literature Review
— مطالعه تغییر زبانی (Language Shift) در میان گویشوران شینا در برابر اردو و انگلیسی
UMT Journals
Zaman, M., Shahbano Jabeen, S., & Ali, M. (2025). Shina Language at Risk: A Sociolinguistic Study from Gilgit-Baltistan. Liberal Journal of Language & Literature Review, Vol.3(3)
— بررسی وضعیت اجتماعی–زبانشناختی و خطر انقراض شینا
Liberal Language Review
Akhtar, Y., Bibi, M., & Tarnum, N. (2025). Impact of Multilingualism on Shina Language in Urban Setting: Issues of Language Shift among Youth. Journal of Communication and Cultural Trends
— تأثیر چندزبانی و تغییر رفتار زبانی در میان جوانان شینا زبان
UMT Journals
Shams, S. A., Khan, M., & Shah, M. (2020). The Impact of Dominant Languages on Regional Languages: A Case Study of English, Urdu and Shina. Pakistan Social Sciences Review, 4(3), pp.1092–1106
— مطالعه تأثیر اردو و انگلیسی بر واژگان و استفاده از زبان شینا
Pakistan Social Sciences Review