In this context, ECO member countries, despite geographical and cultural similarities, show significant differences in terms of development levels and the status of women. The position of women in Kazakhstan is a multi-layered phenomenon shaped by historical, cultural, political, and economic factors. The country embodies a combination of nomadic traditions, Soviet legacy, and modern global trends.
Theoretical Framework of the Report
This report draws on a combination of theoretical models to analyze the status of women.
- First, the Gender Regime Theory, which examines how state institutions, markets, and families interact in producing and reproducing gender inequalities (Walby, 2009)
- Second, the Post-Soviet Transition Model, which emphasizes the role of privatization policies, the retreat of the state from social services, and the return of traditional norms during the 1990s and 2000s (Kandiyoti, 2007).
- Third, Modernization Theory, focusing on the role of education, urbanization, and economic participation in transforming gender roles.
This report does not claim that a single theoretical model can explain the complex situation of women in Kazakhstan; rather, it uses the interaction of these three approaches in its analysis. The main theoretical emphasis of this report is on the concept of the “gap between legal equality and de facto equality”, a phenomenon clearly observable in Kazakhstan.
The central question of this report is: despite cultural similarities with neighboring countries, how has Kazakhstan performed in women’s empowerment indicators, and what lessons can be drawn for other ECO member states? Furthermore, how is the cultural role of women— as guardians of language, traditions, clothing, and traditional arts—being redefined?
Methodological Note – Limitations of Country Comparisons
Before entering the analysis, it must be emphasized that comparing countries with different political systems, economic structures, data quality, and definitions of employment and participation is always subject to limitations. The comparisons presented in this report are only indicative and do not fully reflect deep institutional differences (such as political systems, national statistical definitions of employment, and cultural norms governing women’s participation). Readers are advised to interpret comparative results with these limitations in mind.
This study adopts a comparative social science approach and, using indicators such as education, economic participation, political participation, cultural norms, and women’s cultural roles, examines the status of women.
The findings show that the situation of women in Kazakhstan lies between “tradition and modernity” and is characterized by a phenomenon referred to as the gap between legal equality and practical equality (in this report termed “hidden inequality”). At the same time, women in Kazakhstan play a more prominent role in certain cultural domains—from language and literature to traditional clothing and handicrafts.
2. Historical Background of Women’s Status
2.1 Traditional and Nomadic Period
In traditional Kazakh society, unlike many neighboring patriarchal societies, women played an active role in both family and economic life. Ethnographic studies (Werner, 2009; Kandiyoti, 2007) confirm that women, in addition to managing household affairs, participated in livestock care and even certain important decisions.
In the absence of men (due to migration, war, or trade), women effectively became the heads of households. This situation contributed to the emergence of traits such as self-reliance and a form of social authority among women. However, researchers emphasize that this authority was more managerial and executive than strategic decision-making; in other words, male absence did not necessarily mean structural equality.
Cultural Role of Women in the Traditional Period
In nomadic Kazakh society, women played a significant cultural role in several areas. They transmitted ritual songs (especially toï batyr—wedding and mourning poetry), tribal legends, and traditional medical knowledge (medicinal plants of the steppe) orally across generations.
Moreover, textile arts (felt-making, syrmak, tekmet, baskur) and traditional embroidery—which form the visual identity of Kazakhstan—were largely preserved and passed on by women. This cultural heritage, now a symbol of national identity, is the product of women’s labor and collective memory.
2.2 The Soviet Era
The Soviet period (1920–1991) had a profound impact on women’s status. The increase in literacy rates (reaching nearly 100% by the end of the Soviet era), expansion of education, widespread participation in the labor market, and emphasis on formal legal equality were among the most important outcomes of this period. These developments strengthened the infrastructure for women’s social participation.
Impact on Women’s Cultural Role
During the Soviet era, Kazakh women became widely integrated into state educational and cultural institutions. Many worked as teachers, librarians, journalists, and professional artists.
However, Soviet cultural policy was dual in nature: on one hand, it enabled women’s education and participation in cultural sectors; on the other hand, it suppressed or weakened certain local cultural traditions (including traditional clothing and specific rituals).
Kazakh women developed a form of dual agency in this period: they acted both as preservers of traditions in the private sphere (family) and as promoters of official Soviet culture in the public sphere. In addition, Soviet policies, alongside opportunities, imposed a double burden, social production combined with unpaid domestic labor without sufficient support mechanisms, which has remained in the collective memory of Kazakh society.
Additional Historical Turning Point
The transition from a planned socialist economy to a market economy in the 1990s and 2000s (post-Soviet neoliberal policies) had mixed effects on women’s status. On one hand, it created new entrepreneurial opportunities; on the other, privatization and the reduction of state social services increased the burden on women.
3. The Status of Women in the Contemporary Period
3.1 Education and Human Capital
Kazakhstan holds a relatively high position among ECO member states in terms of women’s educational indicators. The official female literacy rate is reported to be close to 100 percent (UNESCO, 2023). In addition, the share of women in higher education reached over 50 percent in 2022–2023 (World Bank, 2023). These figures refer to basic literacy and do not necessarily reflect functional literacy skills.
In Central Asian countries such as Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, female literacy rates are also high (above 95 percent), reflecting the continued legacy of the Soviet education system.
In contrast, in Afghanistan (data prior to the 2021 political changes), the female literacy rate was below 30 percent, and in Pakistan it was approximately 45–50 percent (2022–2023) (UNESCO, 2023). It should be noted that following the 2021 developments in Afghanistan, girls’ access to education has significantly declined, and updated reliable data is not available.
Additional point: In Kazakhstan, the share of women in STEM fields (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) is around 30–35 percent (UNESCO, 2023), which is higher than the average in many European countries. This represents an important competitive advantage for the future economy.
3.2 Economic Participation
The female labor force participation rate in Kazakhstan is estimated at approximately 55–60 percent according to the latest International Labour Organization (ILO, 2023) data (depending on definitions, reporting year, and economic fluctuations). This is relatively high compared to the global average of 47 percent.
However, a gender wage gap still exists, with women earning on average 20–25 percent less than men (OECD Gender Wage Gap Report, 2023). In some sectors, this gap may reach up to 28 percent, but the 20–25 percent range is more accurate as a national average. In addition, women’s share in managerial positions is reported at around 25–30 percent (official Kazakhstan data, 2022).
Among other ECO member states, conditions vary. According to ILO (2023) and WEF (2023), Iran has a female labor force participation rate of about 13–17 percent, Pakistan around 20–25 percent, Turkey 32–38 percent, and Azerbaijan 60–63 percent.
Multi-factor Causal Analysis (Four Main Drivers)
The situation of women in Kazakhstan is the result of multiple interacting factors, not merely the Soviet legacy. These include:
1- Soviet legacy: establishment of educational and legal infrastructure and a model of full female employment in the public sector.
2- State-centered economic structure (not simply oil-based): Contrary to the simplified “oil economy” narrative, women’s employment in Kazakhstan is concentrated in education, healthcare, public services, and government administration rather than directly in the oil industry. The key factor is the state’s dominant role as employer; any fiscal adjustment or privatization disproportionately affects women.
3- Rapid urbanization after independence, creating new employment opportunities for women in major cities.
4- Male labor migration abroad, which in some regions transferred economic responsibilities to women.
5- Government quota policies supporting women’s access to higher education and mid-level management.
6- Return of Islamic-local cultural norms in the post-Soviet period, which in some regions reinforced gender stereotypes (Kandiyoti, 2007).
7- Social class as a key variable, with urban middle and upper-class women having significantly greater access to education and employment than rural and lower-class women.
Urban–Rural Divide as a Key Analytical Axis
Beyond the above factors, a significant gap exists between urban and rural women, which must be treated as a central analytical dimension rather than a marginal note. Women in major cities such as Almaty and Astana have substantially higher levels of economic participation and educational attainment compared to rural women. In rural areas, female labor force participation drops to around 40–45 percent, and access to higher education, healthcare services, and formal employment is considerably more limited. This demonstrates that the “status of women in Kazakhstan” is not a uniform phenomenon but is strongly shaped by place of residence (urban vs. rural) and social class.
3.3 Political and Social Participation
Women’s presence in Kazakhstan’s political structures is assessed as moderate and gradually increasing. Women’s representation in parliament is around 27–28 percent (IPU, 2024), which is higher than in some regional countries. Factors such as political stability, governance structure, and supportive policies (including gender quotas) play an important role in women’s political participation.
In comparison, among ECO member states, Iran has less than 6 percent representation (Parliament, 2023), placing it among the lowest, while Uzbekistan exceeds 30 percent (2023), placing it among the highest.
3.4 Cultural Norms and Challenges
Kazakhstan’s cultural structure is a combination of indigenous nomadic traditions, relative secularism (Soviet legacy), and influences of global modernity. This combination has created a relatively flexible environment for women’s participation. However, certain patriarchal patterns and gender stereotypes still persist (Kandiyoti, 2007).
Value Duality: Kazakh women face a duality between maintaining family-oriented traditional values and pursuing individual and professional independence. This duality is common in transitional societies but is particularly pronounced in Kazakhstan due to rapid post-1991 transformation and fast urban development.
Glass Ceiling in Practice: Although women have achieved high levels of education, their presence in top managerial and decision-making positions (both public and private sectors) remains limited. This “vertical gap” indicates that structural and cultural barriers constrain women’s career advancement.
Occupational Segregation: Women are predominantly concentrated in “feminized” professions such as education, teaching, social services, and healthcare. Their share in heavy industries (oil, mining, metallurgy) and engineering remains below 20 percent. This horizontal segregation is rooted in gender stereotypes about “appropriate female occupations.”
Domestic Violence , a serious socio-cultural challenge with underestimation and lifetime prevalence distinction: According to WHO (2022), the lifetime prevalence of domestic violence against women in Kazakhstan is estimated at 15–25 percent. This is not an annual rate, but rather the proportion of women who have experienced at least one incident of physical or sexual violence by an intimate partner at some point in their lives. Such indicators are highly sensitive to methodology and are typically underreported; therefore, these figures should be interpreted as minimum estimates. Although Kazakhstan has introduced legal measures to address domestic violence, effective enforcement and cultural change require time.
Main socio-cultural challenges for women in Kazakhstan include:
- Limited presence in senior managerial and political positions (glass ceiling)
- Concentration in low-income or informal sectors (horizontal segregation)
- Lower participation in heavy industries and engineering
- Gender wage gap (20–25 percent)
- Persistence of gender stereotypes in media and education
- Domestic violence (lifetime prevalence: 15–25 percent, likely underreported)
3.5 Cultural Role of Women
Women in Kazakhstan play a particularly prominent role in certain cultural domains—a role that is often overlooked in many development reports. This role can be examined in several key areas. It should be emphasized that these roles are “more prominent,” not “exclusive”; men also participate in these fields, but women’s share is more visible in certain domains.
1. Language and Literature
In traditional Kazakh society, women played a significant role in preserving oral poetry, folk tales, and ritual songs. In the contemporary period, women’s share in teaching the Kazakh language and literature in schools and universities exceeds 70 percent (data from the Ministry of Education of Kazakhstan, 2022).
Although many prominent contemporary Kazakh writers and poets are men, women play a crucial role in promoting children’s literature and preserving local dialects—areas that are often marginal in official cultural policies.
2. Traditional Clothing and Visual Identity (Special Role)
Traditional Kazakh clothing—from the tall bridal headpiece “Saukele” to embroidered vests known as “Kemezil”—is largely designed, sewn, and decorated by women.
Today, Kazakh female fashion designers (such as Aida Kaumenova and Sholpan Kinzheytayeva) are reinterpreting traditional clothing in a modern language and introducing it to international fashion markets.
Women’s clothing in Kazakhstan reflects a combination of three cultural layers:
a) nomadic traditions (silk scarves, velvet headwear)
b) Soviet influence (secular and Westernized clothing styles), and
c) post-independence national revival (reintroduction of traditional motifs).
In this process, women are not only consumers but also designers, producers, and promoters of clothing as a cultural identity marker. However, it should be noted that men also actively participate in men’s fashion design and certain specialized styles.
3. Traditional Arts and Handicrafts
Kazakh women play a central role in preserving arts such as felt-making (syrmak and tekmet), weaving decorative bands (baskur) used in yurt construction, traditional embroidery using silk and gold thread, and the production of felt-based ornaments.
These arts have not only preserved cultural heritage but have also become a source of income and entrepreneurship for thousands of rural women. According to a report by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD, 2023), around 38–40 percent of small and medium-sized enterprises in Kazakhstan’s handicraft and cultural sectors are managed by women.
4. Music and Ritual Practices
In Kazakh culture, women have played a key role in ritual musical performance. Akyne (improvisational poet-singers) have included talented women who performed heroic epics and romantic poetry accompanied by the traditional instrument “dombra.”
Today, women have a strong presence in folk orchestras and traditional music groups. In addition, life-cycle rituals such as birth ceremonies, weddings, and mourning practices are largely maintained and organized by women.
5. Cultural Challenges for Women
Despite these significant roles, women face several challenges in the cultural sphere. Their share in the management of major cultural institutions (museums, national theaters, state orchestras) remains below 30 percent. Moreover, stereotypes persist that “high art” (such as composition, theater directing, and sculpture) is predominantly male-dominated. Nevertheless, a new generation of Kazakh women artists is actively challenging these assumptions.
4. Comparative Overview of ECO Member States
A comparative analysis of key indicators shows that Kazakhstan has a relatively favorable position among ECO member states, particularly in education and economic participation (though variations in definitions and reporting years must be considered).However, as emphasized in the introduction, such comparisons are only indicative and do not fully reflect deep institutional differences such as political systems, statistical definitions of employment, and cultural norms influencing women’s participation.
Female Literacy: Kazakhstan, with a literacy rate close to 100 percent, is among the highest alongside Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan. These countries share the Soviet educational legacy.
Turkey follows with about 96 percent, Iran with 85–90 percent, and Pakistan with 45–50 percent. Afghanistan (pre-2021 data) is below 30 percent. These figures refer to basic literacy, not functional literacy skills.
Female Economic Participation: Kazakhstan, with a participation rate of about 55–60 percent, is among the highest along with Azerbaijan (60–63 percent).
Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan follow with around 50–55 percent, Turkey with 32–38 percent, Pakistan with 20–25 percent, and Iran with 13–17 percent. Afghanistan is estimated below 20 percent.
These sharp differences indicate that high educational attainment alone does not guarantee high economic participation. Cultural, structural, and legal factors (including restrictions on women’s employment in some countries) play a decisive role.
Women’s Representation in Parliament: Kazakhstan, with around 27–28 percent female representation, is in a relatively high position.
Uzbekistan leads with over 30 percent. Turkmenistan (around 26 percent, estimated) and Kyrgyzstan (20–25 percent) are in similar ranges. Turkey stands at 17–20 percent, Pakistan around 20 percent (including reserved seats for women—without which the real share is lower), and Iran below 6 percent. Afghanistan remains below 5 percent.
Cultural Role of Women: Kazakhstan has a unique position among ECO countries in this regard. On one hand, the Soviet legacy enabled women’s high levels of education and participation in formal cultural sectors such as teaching, journalism, and publishing. On the other hand, post-independence national identity revival created space for redefining women’s roles as “guardians of Kazakh traditions,” including clothing and handicrafts.
In comparison, women in Turkey have a stronger presence in modern creative industries such as cinema, fashion, and media. In other Central Asian countries (Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan), women play an important role in preserving traditional crafts, but their participation in leadership roles in major cultural institutions and global cultural markets is generally lower than in Kazakhstan.
5. Positive Developments and Emerging Trends
In recent years, positive trends have been observed in the status of women in Kazakhstan, including increased social awareness, growing legal demands, and changing attitudes toward women’s roles.
Women’s Entrepreneurship in Culture and Handicrafts: According to the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD, 2023), around 38–40 percent of small and medium-sized enterprises in Kazakhstan are owned or managed by women.
In creative and cultural industries, (fashion, design, visual arts, handicrafts), this share is even higher, around 45–50 percent (approximate estimate, requiring more precise data).
Kazakh women entrepreneurs, are developing international brands in traditional-modern clothing and decorative felt products (syrmak and tekmet), exporting to markets in Turkey, Russia, South Korea, and Europe.
Renewable Energy: According to UNDP (2023), women’s participation in Kazakhstan’s renewable energy sector is estimated at 25–28 percent, higher than the global average of 22 percent. This indicates new opportunities for women in emerging economic sectors.
Women in Media and Cultural Production: In the past two decades, women’s share as journalists, presenters, producers, and digital media managers has significantly increased. According to local reports (Journalists’ Association of Kazakhstan, 2023), women make up about 55–60 percent of journalism and communications students. This new generation of women in media is actively reshaping stereotypical narratives about women’s roles in Kazakh society.
Civic Engagement
Civil society organizations and women’s movements have also expanded in recent years, reflecting growing participation and advocacy among women. Social media and online platforms have created new spaces for organizing and raising awareness on issues such as domestic violence and workplace discrimination.
6. Conclusion: The Gap Between Legal and Practical Equality
The status of women in Kazakhstan is more favorable compared to many ECO member states, particularly in education and economic participation. However, this does not mean that full gender equality has been achieved.
The Gap Between Legal and De Facto Equality
Kazakhstan exemplifies a situation in which legal equality has largely been achieved, but real (de facto) equality is still in progress. This report refers to this phenomenon as “hidden inequality.”
Women’s Cultural Role as a National Asset
Women in Kazakhstan play a prominent role in specific cultural domains such as traditional arts, language education, and clothing design. They are not merely subjects of development but active agents in preserving and reconstructing cultural identity in key areas. From traditional felt-making (syrmak and tekmet) to modern fashion inspired by Kazakh motifs, from preserving ritual songs to participation in national media, women form the backbone of contemporary Kazakh cultural identity.
References / Sources
International Resources
]EBRD. (2023). Women in Business Programme: Annual Report. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
ILO. (2023). World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2023. International Labour Organization.
IPU. (2024). Women in Parliament: Global and Regional Averages. Inter-Parliamentary Union.
Kandiyoti, D. (2007). The Politics of Gender in Central Asia. Cambridge University Press.
OECD. (2023). Gender Wage Gap Report. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
UNDP. (2023). Women in Energy Sector: Central Asia Report. United Nations Development Programme.
UNDP. (2024). Gender Development Index: Regional Overview. United Nations Development Programme.
UNESCO. (2023). Global Education Monitoring Report: Gender Equality. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
UN Women. (2023). Progress on Gender Equality in Central Asia. United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women.
Walby, S. (2009). Globalization and Inequalities: Complexity and Contested Modernities. SAGE Publications.
Werner, C. (2009). Women and the Making of the Kazakh Nation. University of Pittsburgh Press.
WHO. (2022). Violence Against Women Prevalence Estimates. World Health Organization.
World Bank. (2023). World Development Indicators: Gender. The World Bank Group.
World Economic Forum. (2023). Global Gender Gap Report. World Economic Forum.
Regional sources (suggested for further reading):
- Annual reports of the Statistics Committee of Kazakhstan (2020–2023)
- Reports of the Central Bank of Iran on women’s employment
- Reports of the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics