Historical and Cultural Roots
The foundations of art in the land of Pakistan date back to the Harappan and Mohenjo-daro civilizations in the Indus Valley, where pottery, seal-making, metalwork, and decorative design flourished significantly. In later periods, the arrival of Islam, the rule of the Mughals, and the presence of various Pashtun, Sindhi, Baloch, Punjabi, and Kashmiri tribes led to the formation of diverse styles and techniques. This diversity has allowed each region of Pakistan to preserve and develop its own distinctive artistic characteristics.
Music
With their entry into the Indian subcontinent, Muslims brought with them a highly advanced cultural system in the field of music, including instruments, musical notes, and sounds. Arabs were themselves pioneers in music. Great Islamic scholars such as Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Al-Farabi, and Al-Kindi left a rich heritage of musical knowledge combined with science and technique.Cities such as Damascus, Baghdad, Córdoba, and later Granada were major centers of development and education in music during the Islamic Empire. From these centers, Arabic music significantly influenced early European music, which originally used only simple instruments such as the citra (later known as the guitar) and the rebec, and played only the sounds they had heard from Arabs.
The Arabs had their own musical instruments, including the oud, bandari, and guitar-like instruments, with specific notes and playing techniques. The method of playing the Arabic oud was later widely adopted by Europeans for their own instruments. Muslims made important additions to musical theory and notes, especially after becoming familiar with Persian and Central Asian traditions, incorporating Persian musical systems into Islamic music.
Many Muslim musicians and musical instruments later gained great fame, and these instruments spread from Islamic lands to Europe, where they received new names. Among them are:
- Rebab (Rebecca)
- Geshak (violin – Viol)
- Chang (harp)
- Tanbur (Pandora)
- Shahrud or Sarod (Archlute)
- Qanun (Dulcimer)
- Ney (flute)
- Nagara (drum)
These instruments became highly popular in the subcontinent through Muslims.
In this context, Muslims created a rich fusion of Iranian, Arabic, and Central Asian musical notes and sounds in the subcontinent, which already had an ancient independent musical system based on string and wind instruments such as Basri, Vina, and Pakhawaj. Later, a new system combining Islamic and indigenous musical traditions developed, producing rich melodies and compositions. The greatest innovator of this new musical synthesis was Amir Khusro. By blending Iranian-Arabic musical elements with existing subcontinental traditions, he created new forms of melodies and compositions, including qawwali, qalbana, tarana, mundaha, naqsh o nigar, gul, and hawa.
Qawwali (devotional/religious music) is the most famous musical form of the subcontinent, created by Amir Khusro, and developed further by his students. Ghazal singing also developed during this period. The modern sitar is also attributed to Amir Khusro’s innovations.
Pakhawaj is a combination of paired tabla-like drums. Among those who significantly contributed to the development of music in this field were Sultan Hussain Sharqi of Jaipur and Ibrahim Shah II of Deccan. Classical music forms such as raga and khayal owe much to Sultan Hussain Sharqi.
In Pakistan’s socio-cultural context, ghazal and qawwali have developed the most. Qawwali, rooted in Sufism, is performed at shrines, gatherings of mystics, and religious ceremonies. Its themes are based on divine love, the Prophet, and spiritual leaders, expressed in a deeply mystical and devotional manner.
However, classical music in Pakistan has not developed strongly due to lack of institutional and financial support, and with the passing of older generations of musicians, it has faced stagnation. Instruments used in classical and spiritual music include sarangi, sitar, tanbur, tabla, dholak, and bansuri.
Recitation, Hamd, and Na’at
Although these rhythmic vocal forms are not formally classified as music, they are widely practiced in Pakistan. Recitation (Qira’at) is the art of reading the Quran in a rhythmic and melodic voice. In Pakistan, every session often begins with Quran recitation.
Hamd and Na’at are devotional expressions of love and praise for God and the Prophet Muhammad. These forms have become important parts of poetic and cultural life in Pakistan. Although no musical instruments are used, they are considered musical due to their rhythmic and melodic nature.
Painting (Visual Arts)
Painting is one of the most widespread and popular arts in Pakistan, as in other artistic fields. However, it is deeply blended with Islamic pictorial techniques. Since Islam is a monotheistic religion, Muslim societies focused on developing artistic forms that did not conflict with religious beliefs, excluding sculpture. Thus, Muslims developed calligraphy, decorative painting, monograms (tughra), floral and ornamental designs, wood and metal engraving, illumination, and bookbinding as distinctive Islamic arts.
From the 13th century, painting in Baghdad developed significantly, mainly in book illumination and margins. After the Mongol destruction of Baghdad, this art developed further in northern Iran, where depictions of birds in flight and natural landscapes emerged. With Chinese influence, calligraphy and decorative arts also evolved.
A new phase of painting emerged under the Timurids in the 15th century, led by the famous painter Behzad, who founded the miniature painting style. Under the Safavids, royal hunting scenes, battles, court life, love stories, and portraits were painted in rich colors.
In the Indian subcontinent, painting under the Delhi Sultanate was influenced mainly by Baghdad style until the arrival of the Mughals. With them came Timurid, Chinese, and Safavid traditions, forming the Mughal style.
In Pakistan, painting heritage is largely rooted in the Mughal tradition. Abdul Rahman Chughtai (1897–1975) pioneered the revival of Mughal painting style. He created a new aesthetic by blending themes and harmonious colors. Another artist, Ustad Allah Bakhsh, developed a distinct style inspired by Punjabi traditions. Alongside traditional styles, a new generation influenced by Western art created works in abstraction, cubism, and surrealism. Artists such as Shakir Ali and Zubeida Agha contributed to these movements, followed by Ahmad Parvez, Shmza, Moeen Najmi, Ali Imam, and others. Sadequain developed his own unique style, distinct from others. The younger generation of artists, influenced by Western techniques, experimented with styles while trying to express local culture and traditions.
Quranic verses were also calligraphed in new artistic forms, and many painters incorporated Quranic calligraphy into their works. In reality, Pakistani painting has been deeply influenced by Western modernism, including impressionism, abstraction, surrealism, romanticism, realism, and pop art. However, many artists have also shown a return toward cultural roots and traditional aesthetics.
Pakistani painting has experienced many transformations, and the younger generation has achieved remarkable innovation in style and technique. Today, Pakistani artists have developed a style that is recognized as distinctly Pakistani painting.
Calligraphy
Calligraphy is fundamentally an Islamic art that developed in a pure and complete form for the recording and transcription of divine verses and the word of God. The divine word in the Holy Qur’an provided the foundation for the growth and flourishing of calligraphic art. Through its development, the visual experience of reading God’s word brings aesthetic pleasure, spiritual peace, and inner tranquility. Thus, the art of writing became a means of beautifying the Holy Qur’an, both in form and spirit.
In its early stages, Qur’anic calligraphy was written in Kufic script. After the independence of Pakistan, the traditional styles of writing that had once been common in the region gradually fell into neglect and decline. Therefore, to better understand the history of calligraphy in Pakistan, it is necessary to study its background in this land.
When Arab Muslims entered the Indian subcontinent, the art of calligraphy also began in the region. Fourteen inscriptions found in Bhurban show that texts from Damascus were engraved in Kufic script. In addition, artifacts and coins from that era indicate that during the Ghaznavid period, Kufic script was widely used and manuscripts were written in it.
During the rule of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), calligraphy in the subcontinent was influenced not only by the traditions of Baghdad, Kufa, and Damascus, but also by calligraphers who came from the Middle East and settled in cultural cities such as Lahore and Multan. They influenced local calligraphers, introducing Central Asian styles. Geometric forms such as triangular and horizontal compositions led to new geometric designs.
The most famous calligraphic styles were developed in Abbasid Baghdad. One of the most notable figures was Ibn Muqla, who established six major styles of calligraphy: Naskh, Muhaqqaq, Riqa’, Tawqi’, Thuluth, and Rayhan, and also created a systematic method for teaching calligraphy.
A major transformation occurred in the 14th and 15th centuries through the fusion of Persian and Arabic styles, resulting in the creation of Nastaliq script—a highly elegant and balanced form combining Naskh and Ta’liq. Its inventor was Khwaja Mir Ali Tabrizi during the Timurid era. Later, it was developed further by Sultan Ali Mashhadi and Mir Ali Heravi.
In the Indian subcontinent, calligraphy passed through all these stages of development. Kufic, followed by Naskh and Thuluth, reached their peak in the 16th century, until the newly popular Nastaliq script was promoted by the Mughals. Calligraphy became the most important court art. Under imperial patronage, many great calligraphers from Central Asia and Iran migrated to India. Babur himself invented a script known as “Baburi script.” Humayun and Akbar also took major steps to promote calligraphy, employing skilled calligraphers to produce numerous exquisite manuscripts. They also incorporated calligraphy into architecture by engraving beautiful inscriptions on monumental buildings.
This art reached its peak during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan. People considered learning calligraphy an honor, and decorated their personal libraries with beautifully written books. As a result, the number of libraries increased significantly. Aurangzeb Alamgir himself was a calligrapher and highly valued the art.
Famous Mughal-era calligraphers include Mir Ali Tabrizi, Abdul Samad Shirin Qalam, Muhammad Husain Kashmiri, Babazid Duri, and Abdul Rashid Daylami. These are regarded as shining stars in the history of calligraphy, and their works are still preserved and respected.
During this period, Shikasta and Diwani scripts also became popular. Calligraphers used different scripts for different purposes. For example, Naskh and Nastaliq were used for official orders, government documents, and poetry collections.
When the Mughal Empire declined, the last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was himself a famous calligrapher, and Hafiz Noorullah was also widely known. Muhammad Afzal Lahori, the most famous Nastaliq calligrapher of Lahore, was regarded as the second greatest master after Abdul Rashid Daylami.
At that time, Nastaliq was written in two main schools: the Lucknow school and the Delhi school. In Lucknow, Hafiz Noorullah and Munshi Shamsuddin Ejaz were prominent masters. In Delhi, Mir Hafiz Amiruddin and Maulana Mumtaz Ali were leading figures.
In the early 20th century, Hafiz Muhammad Yusuf from near Gujranwala went to Delhi and became a famous Nastaliq calligrapher, introducing changes known as the “Dehlavi style.”
Great calligraphers such as Imam Vardi, Sufi Abdul Majid Parveen Qalam, and Tajuddin Zarin Qalam developed a style in Lahore known as the “Lahori style.” In Pakistan today, Qur’anic calligraphy is mostly written in Naskh and Thuluth scripts, while Nastaliq is mainly used for decorative writing.
Master calligraphers such as Hafiz Muhammad Yusuf Siddiqi, Anwar Hussain Nafis Raqam, Hafiz Muhammad Azam, and Ghaus Muhammad Khush Raqam are considered outstanding experts in Naskh. Similarly, Hafiz Yusuf, Anwar Hussain, Haji Din Muhammad, and Abdul Wahid Nadir al-Qalam achieved mastery in Tughra writing and Nastaliq.
A major artistic development of this period was the invention of the “Bahar script” for writing the Holy Qur’an. Samples of this script have been found around Multan and Pakpattan, and inscriptions in mosques and shrines were written in Bahar and Kufic scripts.
During the late Timurid period, Nastaliq, originating in Iran, became widespread in Herat. When local rulers of Hatta allied with the Timurids, Herati calligraphers introduced this script to the region.
After the creation of Pakistan, the pioneer of calligraphy was Abdul Hamid Parveen Qalam, born in Gujranwala into a family of calligraphers. He studied under Muhammad Faqir Kar and wrote works such as the poetry collection of Allama Iqbal.
At that time, printing technology and lithography were newly introduced. Because the fine connections between Nastaliq letters were not properly reproduced by printing presses, reading difficulties arose. Therefore, in 1927–1928, Abdul Majid abandoned the traditional Persian method and developed a new Nastaliq style called the “Lahori style.”
In this style, the size and proportions of letters were modified, making them larger and thicker. Circles that were previously fully round became slightly oval. This new style became widely popular, and even Allama Iqbal entrusted him with writing his poetry collection. Its beauty was so appreciated that editors of the newspaper Zamindar, including Maulana Abdul Majid Salik and Ghulam Rasool Mehr, used his style. Calligraphy teaching spread widely in rural areas, especially around Gujranwala, where villages such as Kot Waris, Adil Garh, Kalianwala, and Eminabad became famous centers of calligraphy.
In the village of Dar Lohari, Zainuddin Zarin Qalam established a calligraphy school called “Katiban,” where famous Pakistani calligraphers such as Muhammad Yusuf, Syed Hussain Nafis al-Qalam, and Sufi Khurshid Alam studied. All these artists were followers of Abdul Majid Parveen Qalam’s new style, which was a major transformation in calligraphy. With his innovation, the Persian style, declined after the fall of the Mughals, was revived and gained new vitality. Although Abdul Majid passed away in 1946, his style remained widely respected and used.
Prominent calligraphers such as Maulana Muhammad Yusuf, Hafiz Muhammad Yusuf Khurshid Alam, Syed Anwar Hussain Nafis Raqam, MM Sharif, Haji Din Muhammad, Hafiz Mahmoodullah Siddiqi, Khushi Muhammad Khush Raqam, and Muhammad Siddiq Almas Raqam lived in or migrated to this region at the time of Pakistan’s creation.
Among migrant calligraphers was Maulana Muhammad Yusuf, who moved from Delhi to Karachi. At that time, the Lahore and Delhi schools of calligraphy spread to different regions of Pakistan, including Balochistan and Sindh. Books, newspapers, and even currency design used these styles. This script is highly complex, with geometric letterforms and very thin edges, making it less fluid but widely used. Its most famous practitioner was Abdul Rashid Rustam Qalam, though it appears this style may eventually disappear.
One of the most famous followers of Sufi Abdul Majid was Muhammad Iqbal (son of Abdul Majid Parveen Qalam), whose works can be seen at Allama Iqbal’s mausoleum, Minar-e-Pakistan, and Data Ganj Bakhsh shrine. Although the Lahori style has long been in use, it has undergone many changes. The most famous modern calligrapher in this tradition is Hafiz Muhammad Yusuf Siddiq, who, while not the inventor of a new style, introduced significant innovations. His student Javed Yousufi mastered the art. Sufi Khurshid Alam also followed this style, though with more circular forms closer to the Lucknow tradition.
Syed Anwar Hussain Nafis Raqam initially followed this style but later developed a beautiful hybrid combining Iranian, Turkish, and local Nastaliq traditions. His students, including Muhammad Jameel Ahmad and Ilahi Bakhsh Muti’, followed his style and also excelled in Thuluth script.
Arabic calligraphy, at the beginning of Pakistan’s independence, underwent major transformations. Its traditional writing styles changed, and local methods gradually replaced earlier forms. In this regard, the Naskh scripts of Waris Kot and Kalianwala are among the most famous.
Syed Anwar Hussain Nafis Raqam introduced special delicacy and refinement in Thuluth script, while Hafiz Muhammad Yusuf Siddiqi revived the Kufic script, which had been abandoned and forgotten for centuries.
In this field, he did not learn calligraphy from a master in the traditional way, but instead studied ancient monuments such as historical buildings in Delhi and inscriptions of the Wazir Khan Mosque. Through extensive practice and perseverance, he achieved mastery in this script.
His works include calligraphy used in Minar-e-Pakistan, Allama Iqbal’s mausoleum, and various Tughra and Kufic inscriptions, demonstrating his skill. The peak of his work can be seen in the inscriptions of Masjid Mansurah in Lahore. One of his calligraphic works also decorates a hall in the United Nations building.
Another well-known art form among Pakistani calligraphers is pictorial calligraphy, which is based on the artistic use of Qur’anic verses and Prophetic traditions. The leader of this style is Sadequain, whose method is widely known and influential. Aslam Kamal is one of his followers who has successfully practiced this art. Calligraphy in Pakistan demonstrates a strong inherent ability to express Islamic cultural spirit in harmony with the modern age.
Handicrafts and Indigenous Arts
It is important to note that this art in early Pakistani history developed through ceramics, metalwork, textiles, and weaving. The techniques and traditions of handicrafts in this land were shaped by the civilizations of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Gandhara, and later reached artistic perfection under the Mughals, continuing to the present day.
These crafts are undoubtedly a key element of cultural identity and, in many cases, may play an even more important role than architecture, painting, or other artistic fields.
Adaptation to environmental and climatic conditions has influenced these crafts significantly. Geography, weather, and local traditions have all played a role in shaping them. As a result, each region of Pakistan has developed its own distinctive craft traditions.
The Indus Valley has the oldest traditions of spinning, weaving, ceramics, and pottery. Balochistan is a center of fine embroidery, needlework, carpet weaving, leatherwork, and decorative weapons. The North-West Frontier region is known for outstanding ceramics and metalwork, silk and wool embroidery, wood and metal engraving, inlay work, and wool weaving.
Among these crafts, spinning is perhaps the oldest artistic heritage of Pakistan. Handwoven rugs and carpets were exported from ancient times through Sindh to Western Asia and ancient peoples.
During the rule of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughals, silk and cotton textile production reached its peak. The finest fabrics such as Juzz, Diiba, silk (Harir), Atlas Kinkhab, Shain-baf, Sherin-baf, Birami, Shushtari, Tabrizi, Gul Baghali, and others have been produced in this region from ancient times to the present.
Similarly, highly advanced decorative crafts such as embroidery, silver embroidery, and applique work have been inherited from Mughal artisans. These include Zardozi, Gota work, Karchob (a type of mirror embroidery on clothing), Salma-Sitara, stitched decoration, and Gota kinari.Chikan work is a type of fabric decorated with mirrors and crystals, also known as Tanzeb.
Mirror embroidery on clothing in Sindh and Balochistan is considered one of the finest handicrafts and is known locally by names such as Gajj, Karmoch, Mithi, and Balochi styles.
Another famous handicraft of Pakistan is leatherwork, historically linked to the Muslim period, with its center in Punjab.
Economic and Social Role of Handicrafts
In addition to preserving cultural heritage, handicrafts in Pakistan are an important source of income for women and rural families. Many cooperatives and non-governmental organizations support this sector through training, financial assistance, and access to international markets. Today, traditional Pakistani products are widely displayed in international exhibitions, and foreign tourists also show strong interest in these crafts.
Challenges and Opportunities
Although handicrafts in Pakistan play an important role in the local economy, they face challenges such as lack of stable international markets, competition from industrial products, and insufficient support for training new generations. However, the growth of tourism, e-commerce, and global appreciation for handmade products has created significant opportunities for revitalizing these traditional arts.
Conclusion
The arts and handicrafts of Pakistan represent a multilayered combination of history, culture, and creativity. These arts not only preserve cultural identity but also serve as an important economic and cultural asset. The connection between tradition and innovation promises a bright future for Pakistan’s handicrafts.
References
- Relevant reference books from the Cultural Heritage Organization of Pakistan Library – Islamabad
- Zahra, Nadra. Handicrafts of Pakistan. Lok Virsa, 2014
- Hussain, Muhammad. “Blue Pottery of Multan: Techniques and History.” Pakistan Journal of Art & Design, 2020, Khan, R. “Traditional Textiles of Sindh.” Journal of South Asian Studies, 2017 etc.